The Facts on Palm
What is the truth on Indonesia’s most important crop?
The palm oil debate is rife with misinformation on palm oil, and particularly Indonesian palm oil. These fact sheets provide clear, coherent and sourced information on palm and the Indonesian economy, poverty reduction, trade, deforestation, and labour.
Boosting Trade
Palm oil is Indonesia’s second-largest export worth USD31 billion annually.
It is critical to Indonesia’s trade balance and current account deficit.
Indonesian palm’s competitiveness has prompted European discrimination against palm oil.
Stopping Deforestation
Indonesia has the world’s second-largest protected forest area.
Deforestation has fallen by 90% over the past two decades.
Oil palm deforestation has declined from 310,000ha in 2012 to 16,600 in 2021.
Supporting Workers
Indonesian palm oil supports more than 20 million workers.
Oil palm workers have higher incomes than those for other crops.
Indonesia works with the ILO to ensure child and forced labour are eradicated.
Strengthening the Economy
Palm oil and palm industries contribute up to 17 percent of GDP.
It directly employs 8 million people — 3.5 percent of the country’s workforce.
It contributes significantly to household incomes, particularly in rural areas.
Reducing Poverty
Palm oil has lifted 2.6 million Indonesians out of poverty.
It benefits 4 million smallholder households in Indonesia.
It leads to better health, education and nutrition in farm communities.
Palm oil is Southeast Asia’s second-largest agricultural product. It is second only to rice.
Palm oil makes up 20% of Southeast Asia’s farm production. Annual production in the region is around USD63 billion annually, representing 20 per cent of the region’s total agricultural production.[i]
Palm oil is Indonesia’s largest agricultural commodity.
Production of oil palm fruit is worth around USD36 billion annually. This is around a quarter of the country’s agricultural production. [ii]
Oil palm cultivation and farming contributes around 5 per cent of Indonesian GDP. The estimates of oil palm cultivation and harvesting to Indonesia’s GDP are between 3 and 9 per cent.[iii]
The value added contribution to GDP for palm oil is 17%. This is from additional downstream processing (e.g. oleochemicals and food production), transport and logistics.[iv]
Palm oil increases employment. It improves the trade balance, and improves other sectors that have links to palm such as edible oils, soaps and cosmetics. [v]
It contributes to poverty alleviation in rural areas. This includes farm laborers and all household categories, including in urban areas.[vi]
Palm oil lifted up to 2.6 million rural Indonesians out of poverty this century.[vii]
It means faster poverty reduction and greater wealth for farmers. Expansion of palm plantation areas led to a 2.7 per cent faster poverty reduction and 4 per cent faster consumption growth.[viii]
Palm oil employs 16.2 million Indonesians. The employment contribution of palm oil to Indonesia is approximately 16.2 million people, comprising 12 million indirect employees and around 4.2 million indirect employees.[ix] Other estimates are around 17.5 million.[x]
Palm employment is very high in rural areas. In provinces such as Riau, the share of direct employment in the industry is around 17 per cent, in regencies such as Siak the share is around 38 per cent.[xi]
Palm contributes to Indonesia’s government revenue. The industry contributes significantly to Indonesia’s state revenues as both non-tax and tax revenue. In the 2023 the largest revenue contribution was through the Palm Oil Plantation Fund Management Agency (BPDPKS), with total revenues of Rp. 32 trillion.[xii]
Palm boosts household incomes by 25%. At the household level in Indonesia, adoption of oil palm by smallholders (as opposed to other crops) boosts household incomes by around 25 per cent. [xiii]
Palm oil boosted Indonesia’s economy during the COVID pandemic. The pandemic resulted in a contraction of around 5 per cent to Indonesia’s economy in 2020.[xiv] However, the plantation subsector – comprising mostly palm oil – recorded growth of more than 8 per cent in the second half of 2021. [xv] Palm oil was essential to support lives and livelihoods through the pandemic; and it is now central to rebuilding the rural economy, post-COVID.
[i] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2022). FAOSTAT statistical database. [Rome]
[ii] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2022). FAOSTAT statistical database. [Rome]
[iii] Verina Ingram (2019). “An independent look at palm oil in Indonesia” March 18, 2019. https://www.wur.nl/en/blogpost/An-independent-look-at-palm-oil-in-Indonesia.htm
[iv] Herry Purnomo, Beni Okarda, Ahmad Dermawan, Qori Pebrial Ilham, Pablo Pacheco, Fitri Nurfatriani, Endang Suhendang. Reconciling oil palm economic development and environmental conservation in Indonesia: A value chain dynamic approach, Forest Policy and Economics, Volume 111, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102089.
[v] Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations (2021). Evaluation of FAO’s contribution to the Republic of Indonesia 2016‒2020. Annex 2. Value chain development. Rome, 2021cb4979en.pdf (fao.org)
[vi] Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations (2021). Evaluation of FAO’s contribution to the Republic of Indonesia 2016‒2020. Annex 2. Value chain development. Rome, 2021cb4979en.pdf (fao.org)
[vii] Ryan Edwards (2019). Export agriculture and rural poverty: evidence from Indonesian palm oil Ryan B. Edwards∗ Dartmouth College February 19, 2019 eard_v9_1901-merged.pdf (squarespace.com)
[viii] Ryan Edwards (2019). Export agriculture and rural poverty: evidence from Indonesian palm oil Ryan B. Edwards∗ Dartmouth College February 19, 2019 eard_v9_1901-merged.pdf (squarespace.com)
[ix] BPDP KS (2018). Indonesia’s Palm Oil Industry Absorbs 16.2 Million Workers – Home (bpdp.or.id): https://www.bpdp.or.id/Industri-Kelapa-Sawit-Indonesia-Serap-16-2-Juta-Pekerja
[x] RAMADHANA, A., AHMED, F., & THONGRAK, S. (2021). The Impact of Oil Palm Farming on Household Income and Expenditure in Indonesia. The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business, 8(4), 539–547. https://doi.org/10.13106/JAFEB.2021.VOL8.NO4.0539
[xi] Ngadi, Ngadi. (2013). The Employment Aspect Of Palm Oil Plantation In Indonesia : Challenges and Prospects. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321670297_THE_EMPLOYMENT_ASPECT_OF_PALM_OIL_PLANTATION_IN_INDONESIA_Challenges_and_Prospects/
[xii]. BPDPKS (2024) 2023 Annual Performance Report https://www.bpdp.or.id/uploads/2024/Laporan%20Publikasi/LAKIN_BPDP_2023_EDT.pdf
[xiii] Euler, M., Krishna, V., Schwarze, S., Siregar, H., & Qaim, M. (2017). Oil Palm Adoption, Household Welfare, and Nutrition Among Smallholder Farmers in Indonesia. World Development, 93, 219–235. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.12.019 10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.12.019
[xiv] Mawardati, Jamilah1 and Ghazali Syamni (2020). The impact of the economic crisis on Indonesian palm oil exports: a long term simulation analysis. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Volume 694, International e-Conference on Sustainable Agriculture and Farming System 24-25 September 2020, Bogor, Indonesia https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/694/1/012012/pdf
[xv] Alin Halimatussadiah, Ryan Edwards, Faizal R. Moeis & Rafika F. Maulia (2022) Agriculture, Development and Sustainability in the Covid-19 Era, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 58:1, 1-30, DOI: 10.1080/00074918.2022.2056935
There are 2.7 million palm smallholders in Indonesia. Palm oil contributes significantly to poverty reduction across Indonesia largely because of its presence in rural areas and the large number of smallholders. It is estimated that there are at least 2.7 million smallholder farms in Indonesia,[i] farming 40 per cent of the crop’s area across Indonesia.[ii]
Palm oil lifted up to 2.6 million rural Indonesians out of poverty this century.[iii] Expansion of palm plantation areas led to a 2.7 per cent faster poverty reduction and 4 per cent faster consumption growth.[iv]
Palm farmers receive returns that are 10 times higher than other crops. Financial returns to land for farmers palm oil are ten times higher than other crops such as rice, and returns to labour were around 20 times higher.[v]
Palm can contribute to more than 75% of household incomes. In palm oil cultivating areas, the contribution of palm oil to farmer households is between 63 and 78 per cent according to multiple studies.[vi][vii][viii]
Palm oil cultivation means higher income and higher expenditures on non-food items. Palm oil households have 25% higher total expenditures, 37% higher non-food expenditures, and 14% higher food expenditure.[ix] [x] This can lead to better outcomes social outcomes, particularly in nutrition, education and health.[xi]
Palm oil households can spend more on education. Expenditures for regular school education are 31 % higher, for higher education they are 39 % higher. There are also lower drop-out rates for palm oil households. This has a broader impact at the community level: “Farmers were able to send their children to high school and university, and an increasing number of natives came back to their villages as public servants, most often primary school teachers.”[xii]
Palm increases incomes for non-palm households. Higher incomes are also distributed to non-farm households in palm oil communities. In Jambi, the contribution of palm oil to total non-farm household income is estimated at 70 per cent.[xiii]
Palm oil will continue reducing poverty into the future. A modelling study has found that 10% increase in the amount of land from oil palm plantations produces a 0.05% reduction in poverty levels, a 0.02% unemployment rate reduction, a 0.03% increase in the number of school graduates middle to upper, a 0.12% increase in non-food consumption, and a 0.21% increase in access to clean water.[xiv]
[i] https://ditjenbun.pertanian.go.id/?publikasi=statistik-perkebunan-jilid-i-2022-2024
[ii] BPS (2024) https://www.bps.go.id/id/statistics-table/2/MTg0NyMy/luas-tanaman-perkebunan-besar-menurut-jenis-tanaman–ribu-hektar-.html
[iii] Ryan Edwards (2019). Export agriculture and rural poverty: evidence from Indonesian palm oil Ryan B. Edwards∗ Dartmouth College February 19, 2019 eard_v9_1901-merged.pdf (squarespace.com)
[iv] Ryan Edwards (2019). Export agriculture and rural poverty: evidence from Indonesian palm oil Ryan B. Edwards∗ Dartmouth College February 19, 2019 eard_v9_1901-merged.pdf (squarespace.com)
[v] Feintrenie, L., Chong, W.K. & Levang, P. Why do Farmers Prefer Oil Palm? Lessons Learnt from Bungo District, Indonesia. Small-scale Forestry 9, 379–396 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-010-9122-2
[vi] Janice Lee, Jaboury Ghazoul, Krystof Obidzinski, Lian Koh. Oil palm smallholder yields and incomes constrained by harvesting practices and type of smallholder management in Indonesia. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Springer Verlag/EDP Sciences/INRA, 2014, 34 (2), pp.501-513. ff10.1007/s13593-013-0159-4ff. ffhal-01234784 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01234784/document
[vii] Susila WR (2004) Contribution of oil palm industry to economic growth and poverty alleviation in Indonesia. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian 23:107–114
[viii] Budidarsono S, Dewi S, Sofiyuddin M, Rahmanulloh A (2012) Socioeconomic impact assessment of palm oil production. World Agroforestry Centre—(ICRAF), SEA Regional Office, Bogor
[ix] Euler, M., Krishna, V., Schwarze, S., Siregar, H., & Qaim, M. (2017). Oil Palm Adoption, Household Welfare, and Nutrition Among Smallholder Farmers in Indonesia. World Development, 93, 219–235. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.12.019
[x] Euler, Michael & Krishna, Vijesh & Schwarze, Stefan & Siregar, Hermanto & Qaim, Matin, 2017. “Oil Palm Adoption, Household Welfare, and Nutrition Among Smallholder Farmers in Indonesia,” World Development, Elsevier, vol. 93(C), pages 219-235.https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/wdevel/v93y2017icp219-235.html
[xi] Krishna, Vijesh V. & Euler, Michael & Siregar, Hermanto & Fathoni, Zakky & Qaim, Matin, 2015. “Farmer heterogeneity and differential livelihood impacts of oil palm expansion among smallholders in Sumatra, Indonesia,” EFForTS Discussion Paper Series 13, University of Goettingen, Collaborative Research Centre 990 “EFForTS, Ecological and Socioeconomic Functions of Tropical Lowland Rainforest Transformation Systems (Sumatra, Indonesia)”
[xii] Feintrenie, L., Chong, W.K. & Levang, P. Why do Farmers Prefer Oil Palm? Lessons Learnt from Bungo District, Indonesia. Small-scale Forestry 9, 379–396 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-010-9122-2
[xiii] Bou Dib, Jonida; Krishna, Vijesh; Alamsyah, Zulkifli; Qaim, Matin (2018) : Land-use change and livelihoods of non-farm households: The role of income from employment in oil palm and rubber in rural Indonesia, EFForTS Discussion Paper Series, No. 21, GOEDOC, Dokumenten- und Publikationsserver der Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen, https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:7-webdoc-3979-7
[xiv] “LPEM UI : Kaitan Industri Sawit terhadap Pencapaian SDGs Sangat Kuat” Agrofarm Informasi Agribisnis.
1 November, 2018 https://www.agrofarm.co.id/2018/11/9824/
Indonesia exports more than half the world’s palm oil. Palm oil is Indonesia’s largest agricultural product, and Indonesia is the largest palm exporting country in the world.
Palm oil is Indonesia’s second-largest export. Palm oil and stearic acid combined represent around 13 per cent of Indonesia’s total export revenue. This was worth around USD33 billion in 2023.[i]
Indonesia’s palm export markets are diverse. In 2023 roughly 8 per cent of Indonesia’s palm oil product exports went to European nations; around 8 per cent to Pakistan, 16 per cent to India and 21 per cent to China.[ii]
The US is becoming a more important market for palm oil. The volume of palm oil imported by the US has almost doubled over the past five years.
Palm oil assists in maintaining the country’s trade balance and current account deficit. The use of palm oil for biofuels for mandatory blending reduces a reliance on imports of fossil fuels. Reducing fossil fuel imports reduces the country’s current account deficit.
The EU is importing less Indonesian palm oil. Volumes of palm oil products going to the EU have almost halved since 2018. This is despite Indonesia’s overall exports remaining consistent.
The EU has been placing more trade barriers against Indonesian palm oil imports. These have taken the form of: banning palm oil in the EU biodiesel market, prompting a WTO case against the EU;[iii] Antidumping duties, imposed by the EU in 2015 on Indonesian biodiesel, and then ruled illegal under WTO rules;[iv] Countervailing duties, which were imposed on Indonesian biodiesel in November 2019.[v]
The EU’s trade bans on palm oil have been heavily criticised by Indonesian leaders. President Jokowi and other senior officials have directly criticised the EU.[vi]
[i] TradeMap. (2021). Trade Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.trademap.org/Index.aspx
[ii] TradeMap. (2021). Trade Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.trademap.org/Index.aspx
[iii] European Union – Certain Measures Concerning Palm Oil and Oil Palm Crop-Based Biofuels, Request for the Establishment of a Panel by Indonesia, Panel Report, WT/DS593/9 (24 March 2020) WTO | dispute settlement – the disputes – DS593: European Union – Certain measures concerning palm oil and oil palm crop-based biofuels
[iv] Panel Report, European Union – Anti-Dumping Measures on Biodiesel from Indonesia, WT/DS480/R and Add.1, adopted 28 February 2018, DSR 2018:II, p. 605 WTO | dispute settlement – the disputes – DS480
[v] 7European Union – Certain Measures Concerning Palm Oil and Oil Palm Crop-Based Biofuels, Request for the Establishment of a Panel by Indonesia, Panel Report, WT/DS593/9 (24 March 2020)
[vi] Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia (2021). Remarks of President of the Republic of Indonesia at World Leaders Summit on Forest and Land Use, 2 November 2021, at Scottish Event Campus, Glasgow, Scotland (setkab.go.id)
Indonesia’s forests cover around half of Indonesia’s land mass. They are the 8th-largest in the world, covering more than 92 million ha.[i]
More than half of Indonesia’s forests are protected. They cover almost 52 million ha. This is an area 1.25 times the size of the Netherlands[ii]. They are the second-largest area of forest in protected areas globally.
Deforestation in Indonesia has fallen by more than 90 per cent over the past decade.[iii] Indonesia’s deforestation has declined from around 1.9 million ha annually between 1990 and 1996[iv] to 133,000 ha in 2022-2023.[v]
Only 7 per cent of Indonesia’s forest loss can be attributed to industrial palm oil. The most recent data indicates that deforestation from palm oil was 19,900 ha in 2022.[vi]
Other governments have commended Indonesia’s anti-deforestation efforts. In 2021 the Norwegian Government stated: “Indonesia has become a world leader in combatting tropical deforestation. A series of progressive regulations and policies to protect the nation’s rainforests have been put in place. The results are impressive. Over the last four years Indonesia has delivered massive reductions of deforestation and peatland conversion. This is a significant contribution to global climate change mitigation and protection of biodiversity.”[vii]
Oil palm plantations is not responsible for the majority of deforestation in Indonesia, Southeast Asia, or the world. By way of comparison, in 2020 cattle grazing in Brazil caused 948,500 ha of forest loss, but palm oil caused around 32,400 ha.[viii]
Fires in Indonesia are being reduced thanks to Indonesian policy efforts. The land area burned in Southeast Asia between 2001 and 2018 was smaller than the area burned in Europe.[ix]
Indonesia’s deforestation reductions are the result of Indonesian policy. The forest moratorium, introduced under President Yudhoyono,[x] has been in operation since 2011. A moratorium on palm oil permits was introduced in 2018.[xi] The government also introduced a 5-year sustainability action plan for palm oil in 2019,[xii] incorporating grower capacity, environmental management, conflict mediation and certification under the national standard for palm oil, ISPO (Indonesia Sustainable Palm Oil).
[i] FAO. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825en
[ii] FAO. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825en
[iii] menlhk.go.id/cadmin/uploads/So_I_Fo_2024_B5_ENG_07_14_24_af463e453d.pdf
[iv] FAO. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825en
[v] Trase. (2022). SEI-PCS Indonesia palm oil v1.2 supply chain map: Data sources and methods. Trase. https://doi.org/10.48650/ZY8Z-F795
[vi] Trase. (2022). SEI-PCS Indonesia palm oil v1.2 supply chain map: Data sources and methods. Trase. https://doi.org/10.48650/ZY8Z-F795
[vii] NICFI (2021). Press statement: The Indonesia-Norway climate and forest partnership – NICFI. https://www.nicfi.no/current/press-statement-the-indonesia-norway-climate-and-forest-partnership/
[viii] https://trase.earth/explore/supply-chain/indonesia/palm-oil?utm_source=explore_data_card&chartType=sankey&year=2022&indicator=volume&dimension=region_production_1&dimension=mill_group&dimension=exporter&dimension=country_of_import&hideDomestic=false
[ix] FAO. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825en)
[x] Instruksi Presiden (INPRES) Nomor 10 Tahun 2011. Penundaan Pemberian Izin Baru dan Penyempurnaan Tata Kelola Hutan Alam Primer dan Lahan Gambut. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/11355/inpres-no-10-tahun-2011
[xi] Instruksi Presiden (INPRES) Nomor 8 Tahun 2018. Penundaan dan Evaluasi Perizinan Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit serta Peningkatan Produktivitas Perkebunan Kelapa SawitI. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/92813/inpres-no-8-tahun-2018
[xii] Instruksi Presiden (INPRES) Nomor 6 Tahun 2019. Rencana Aksi Nasional Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit Berkelanjutan Tahun 2019-2024. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/127666/inpres-no-6-tahun-2019]
All plantations in Indonesia directly employ more than 20 million workers. They are the largest GDP contributor (35%)[i] to the agricultural sector.
There are 2.7 million smallholder oil palm farmers in Indonesia.
There are and additional 4.2 million oil palm farm employees.[ii]
The palm oil downstream sector directly employs 7.3 million workers. It supports more than 14 million indirect employees.[iii]
Around 88% of workers in the agricultural sector are informally employed.[iv] Informal palm oil workers are generally in small to medium plantations, in line with the rural labor market.
On large estates, workers are generally employed on a permanent or fixed-term employment contract. [v] They have a maximum of 21 days of work per month and 40 hours per week, [vi] with minimum wages set by province or city/regency,[vii] as well as a religious holiday allowance and annual paid leave.[viii]
Average wage rates for households in palm oil employment are higher than that of households employed in other plantations such as rubber. The average income of palm oil non-farm households was 32% higher.[ix]
Households with palm oil employees have better living conditions. This includes housing condition and access to electricity and tapped water. [x]
ISPO, Indonesia’s mandatory certification scheme, has prohibitions against child and forced labour. Palm producers must prevent child labour, forced labour and discrimination, and operate according to Indonesia’s labour laws.[xi]
Indonesia is working with partner governments and intergovernmental organisations to guarantee worker rights in palm plantations. This year the US government, ILO and GAPKI announced a new initiative to improve collaboration and worker rights.[xii]
Indonesia has worked with the US Government, ILO and EU since 2016 to improve worker rights on palm plantations.[xiii]
Palm oil companies and NGOs collaborated to prevent child labour. They have produced the Policy Implementation Manual on Child Protection, an industry guideline to promote child rights and address child labor related issues in different geographical contexts.[xiv]
The government, industry and ILO have collaborated on labor inspections. In 2021 the ILO produced a guide for labor inspection for the palm oil sector in conjunction with the Indonesian government, trade unions and the private sector.[xv]
Indonesia is seeking continual improvement of labour rights. Under the National Action Plan for Sustainable Palm Oil, the palm oil sector also ensures labor rights protections by conducting reviews of labor regulations and outreach programs for oil palm plantation workers. [xvi]
[i] Directorate General of Crop Estates, Ministry of Agriculture. (2020). “Palm Oil Statistics Report 2018-2020”. Accessed at https://ditjenbun.pertanian.go.id/?publikasi=buku-publikasi-statistik-2018-2020
[ii] https://ditjenbun.pertanian.go.id/?publikasi=statistik-perkebunan-jilid-i-2022-2024
[iii] Directorate General of Crop Estates, Ministry of Agriculture. (2020). 2020 Crop Estate Annual Report. Accessed at https://ditjenbun.pertanian.go.id/info-publik/laporan-tahunan/
[iv] National Bureau of Statistics (2020). Statistics of Percentage Share of Informal Workers. Accessed at https://www.bps.go.id/indicator/6/1171/1/persentase-tenaga-kerja-informal-sektor-pertanian.html
[v] See article 56, Law 13 of 2003 Concerning Manpower (Manpower Act). Article 1, and Minister of Manpower and Transmigration Decree No. 100/2004 Concerning Stipulation in Implementation of Work Agreement for Specified Period of Time.
[vi] See Article 10, Ministry of Manpower, and Transmigration Decree No 100 of 2004.
[vii] ILO. Law 13 of 2003 concerning Manpower. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/travail/docs/760/Indonesian+Labor+Law+-+Act+13+of+2003.pdf
[viii] ILO. Document of Minister of Manpower and Transmigration Decree No 102 of 2004 concerning Overtime and Overtime Salaries. Accessed at https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=71303&p_count=96182&p_classification=13.01&p_classcount=2052
[ix] Jonida Bou Dib, Vijesh V. Krishna, Zulkifli Alamsyah, Matin Qaim. (2018). Land-use change and livelihoods of non-farm households: The role of income from employment in oil palm and rubber in rural Indonesia. Accessed at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.03.020
[x] Jonida Bou Dib, Vijesh V. Krishna, Zulkifli Alamsyah, Matin Qaim. (2018). Land-use change and livelihoods of non-farm households: The role of income from employment in oil palm and rubber in rural Indonesia. Accessed at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.03.020
[xi] https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/201269/permentan-no-38-tahun-2020
[xii] https://www.state.gov/drl-advancing-freedom-of-association-and-improving-workers-rights-in-indonesias-palm-oil-sector
[xiii] https://www.ilo.org/projects-and-partnerships/projects/advancing-workers-rights-indonesia-and-malaysias-palm-oil-sector
[xiv] Business for Social Responsibility and Wilmar (2021). Creating Opportunities for Action: Advancing Children’s Rights in the Palm Oil Industry. Accessed at https://www.bsr.org/en/our-insights/blog-view/opportunities-for-action-children-rights-in-the-palm-oil-industry
[xv] Guide for labour inspection in Indonesia’s palm oil sector (ilo.org)
[xvi] Sudi Astono, Ministry of Manpower (2021). Presentation slides. Presented at Webinar ILO dan GAPKI: Decent Work for Sustainable Palm Oil, 30 Juni 2021 .Under the National Action Plan for Sustainable Palm Oil, the palm oil sector also ensures labor rights protections by conducting reviews of labor regulations and outreach programs for oil palm plantation workers. [lviii]